Improving Black Student Achievement

Chapter 3

Strategies to Improve Student Self-Image and Achievement

A strong self-image is critical to learning. Yet, as Chapter 2 demonstrates, many school-related factors and teacher behaviors can debilitate the self-images of Black youth. This chapter examines strategies that can assist teachers to minimize the impact of institutional racism on student achievement. The strategies presented will focus on how to do the following:

Mitigating the Effects of Institutional Racism

The activities suggested below will help educators at all grade levels to develop a positive academic self-concept among black students.

Administrative Policies and Practices

  1. Review school policy and revise or eliminate rules which punish students for cultural habits (e.g., wearing African or corn-row hairstyles, signifying or playing the dozens or being loud or expressive).

  2. Review instructional materials that belittle, exclude or stereotype minorities. Add materials which are multicultural in all subject areas at all grade levels. If certain biased materials are kept, make sure that teachers know how to use these materials in non-biased ways.

  3. Help provide teachers with a basic familiarity of Black history and culture through staff development sessions or informal activities such as reading; visiting art shows, museums or religious institutions; inviting Black achievers as guests to provide role models and content; or participating in Black social events.

  4. Use flexible, heterogeneous and cooperative groupings rather than ability grouping and tracking,

  5. Ensure that schools in predominantly Black neighborhoods are financed at least at the same level as schools in predominantly White neighborhoods.

  6. Incorporate the provision of equal opportunity in the classroom as part of the teacher evaluation process.

Classroom Practices:

Strategies to Strengthen Cognitive Development

  1. Use more group activities and thought-provoking, higher order questions to stimulate thinking and to challenge the creativity of Black students.

  2. Reward Black students for trying and insure that their persistence, determination and hard work pay off.

  3. Make the curricula more relevant to the Black experience by focusing classroom activities on such topics as:

    • current issues, news and events that address economic survival, political decision making and civil rights;
    • values clarification in the shouldering of adult responsibilities; and
    • positive local community and youth developments.

  4. Conduct a unit on the damage done to all members of society by racist organizations such as the Nazis or the Ku Klux Klan.

  5. Conduct a unit on South Africa to show how prejudice and racism has divided the nation and affected its economy.

Building on Students' Culture by Using a Variety of Teaching Strategies

Culture determines how children perceive life and their relationship to the world. Because culture also influences how and what children learn, educators can use culture to improve self-image and achievement. Not only must teachers show an appreciation of cultural diversity, they must also incorporate teaching strategies that are congruent with the learning styles of their students. According to Edgar Dale's Cone of Experience (Table VI), students remember more when they participate in an actual experience or even a simulation.

Activities to Support Black Student Identity

  1. Teach Black students standard English, but acknowledge and accept all Black English as a legitimate form of expression. Black youth need to learn to speak and write standard English; however, they should not be made to feel uncomfortable when using Black English in casual conversation.

  2. Teachers can show their acceptance of their students' speech through:

    • using poems, stories and plays that contain dialect;

    • occasionally building rhythmic speech patterns and activities into lesson plans; and

    • acknowledging and accepting slang or cultural dialect in minority youth while stressing the appropriate and inappropriate use of such language.

  3. Provide many opportunities for students to be actively involved in their learning:

    • Provide opportunities for children to display their non-academic strengths and talents in ways that enhance academic learning. Students should use dramatic or musical skills in role playing or debating, for example.

    • Students can relate family and personal experiences through class discussions or writing to include those who have facilitated their growth, evoked special feelings or taught them a sense of responsibility.

    • Emphasize those things that make each student and /or their heritage special and acknowledge the non-academic strengths which students display. Provide opportunities for students to interact cooperatively with students from other races and ethnic groups.

    • Young people can also engage in dramatic readings or role plays where they have opportunities to dramatize cultural values and behaviors of other races.

    • Provide intergenerational experiences.

  4. To build on many Black youngsters' learning style preferences, educators can develop a more personal approach to interacting with students. "Stage setting" is a set of activities deemed important by some Black students before engaging in an assignment (e.g., pencil sharpening, rearranging postures, checking paper and writing space, asking for repeat directions, checking perceptions with neighbors). These students are likely to be perceived as avoiding work or disrupting class. However, many observers view "stage setting" as a very likely activity for many Black youth (Gilbert and Gay, 1987). Teachers need to maintain a high level of openness and acceptance with these children and youth. One way to convey this attitude is to accept the need for a few minutes of "stage setting" activities.

  5. Black youth learn best when allowed extensive interaction with the teacher and other peers. Hugging, touching and approving "pats" are certainly permissible and encouraged, especially for younger children when appropriate. Caution should be taken to assure that such contact is genuine and supportive, not intrusive, however. Although equipment and objects are part of the school's resources, teachers should supplement use of objects (i.e., gadgets, toys, computers, learning devices, equipment) with extensive person-to-person interaction, close physical proximity and lots of reassurance.

    Teachers can also:

    • speak in a comforting and consoling voice;

    • demonstrate fairness in their treatment of students;

    • incorporate humor in their instructional styles and in one-on-one interactions; and

    • encourage test givers to develop some measure of rapport with students before administering an exam.

  6. Another way to expand on Black students' learning style preferences is to provide students with opportunities to work cooperatively by learning from each other. A highly cooperative atmosphere will provide a more comfortable learning environment for students. Some examples follow:

    • Make use of peer tutoring or peer coaching by allowing students to receive peer assistance in areas where they are weak and to offer peer assistance in areas where they are strong. The phrase "each one teach one" should be a part of the class motto, especially in the early grades. Older students, even those without outstanding academic skills, can tutor younger students as a means to enhance self-image.

    • All children should have a "buddy" who spends time with them, gets their homework when they're absent, discusses impressions and learning and shares skills, information and strategies. Buddies should also have an opportunity to share with the class special and unique things they have discovered about their respective buddy.

    • Students should be involved in group projects where they learn from one another and develop interactional skills.

    • Reward sharing and other cooperative behaviors. Let the students compete against themselves for a higher level of performance rather than against other students. Later, reward them for their attempts as well as their successes.

If students are appreciated for their non-academic strengths, they are more likely to gain the confidence needed to overcome their areas of academic deficiencies. Teachers can motivate students through activities which affirm students' cultural backgrounds and cultural strengths.

Using Flexible and Cooperative Heterogeneous Grouping

As noted in chapter 2, heterogeneous grouping is an excellent alternative to ability grouping and tracking that often have irreversible and detrimental effects on the self-image of minority youth.

The use of heterogeneous groupings requires a restructuring of both curriculum and classroom procedures. Teachers will find that heterogeneous groupings will be most successful when the following activities take place (Benham-Tye, 1984):

One approach to heterogeneous grouping in the classroom is Cooperative Learning, in which students are organized into small mixed-ability groups to learn academic material. Student team learning and Jigsaw, developed by Robert Slavin and colleagues at Johns Hopkins University, emphasize cooperative activity and reward structures along with individual accountability. Learning Together, developed by David and Roger Johnson at the University of Minnesota, nurtures cooperation through five elements: positive interdependence, face-to-face interaction, individual accountability, social skills, and group processing. The work of Spencer Kagan and Dee Dishon is also extremely useful to develop cooperative learning strategies. All these approaches are effective alternatives to permanent grouping and tracking. These instructional strategies have the added benefit of improving understanding and interaction among students from diverse groups and backgrounds while increasing student achievement. (See Bibliography for Cooperative Learning references.)

Demonstrating Higher Academic Expectations for Black Youth

In teaching Black students, teachers should use a great deal of praise, infrequent criticism and constant reinforcement. Other behaviors that will convince Black students that teachers believe in them and want them to excel include:

Scheduling one-on-one sessions with elementary students to discuss their weekly, monthly and long-range goals is helpful. Teachers can also monitor progress and provide insight for ongoing improvement. If a heavy high school class load precludes meeting with each students, meet with a significant portion of students who require more attention.

Teachers must accept encouragement and motivation as critical to improving students' self-image. Black youth can and should be challenged to be their best, but that challenge must take place in a non-threatening, supportive manner. Students must feel that the motivation is sincere and well intended. Personal compliments, along with displays of empathy, sensitivity, compassion and attention, will work wonders for youth regardless of age or grade.

Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills

Learning is more meaningful and permanent when students have opportunities to make the learning process their own through both active mental involvement and reflection (Benham-Tye, 1984). The teaching of higher order thinking skills can provide students with such active involvement. Open-ended questions to youth of any age or skill level can stimulate their imaginations. When answering questions requiring simple recall, Black youth soon feel they are perceived as low achievers.

Beginning in the elementary grades, teachers can develop higher order thinking and stimulate the desire to analyze and reflect by fostering the following:

Teachers can teach children to think at every grade level and through virtually every classroom activity. For example, prior to any learning activity, teachers can point out strategies and steps for attacking problems, rules that students should remember and directions they should follow. Time constraints, purposes and ground rules can also be identified and internalized by students.

During any activity, ask students to indicate where they are in their strategy, to describe their trail of thinking and to define alternative problem-solving pathways they intend to pursue. This will help them become aware of their own behavior and their thought processes.

After the learning activity, ask students to evaluate how well they followed the rules and directions, how productive the strategies were and whether alternative, more efficient strategies could be used in the future (Costa, 1984).

In all activities, be sure to generate questions. Regardless of the subject area, encourage students to pose study questions for themselves prior to and during their reading of textual material. This self-generation of questions facilitates comprehension and encourages students to pause frequently to think about whether, for instance, they know main characters or events; grasp the concept; can relate it to what they already know; can give other examples; or can use the main idea to explain other ideas or predict what might come next. All of this helps students become more self-aware and to take conscious control of their studying development (Sanacore, 1984).

Table VII and Table VIII were developed by Jay McTighe (Maryland State Department of Education, 1985). They provide suggested forms of questioning to develop quality thinking and specific strategies to extend student thinking. The question starters in Table VII, Questioning for Quality Thinking, are organized under the categories of Bloom's Taxonomy ( Table IX). The Taxonomy, while not an accurate representation or model of human thinking, is a useful vehicle for reminding teachers to utilize different types of questions during instruction. Tables VII and VIII are most useful when used to "cue" teachers to integrate effective questioning and discussion strategies more regularly into their daily repertoire (McTighe, 1985).

As students perform an activity, help them to choose consciously. Promote metacognition by helping them explore the consequences of their choices and decisions prior to and during the act of deciding. They will then be able to perceive casual relationships among their choices, their actions, and the results they achieve. Providing nonjudgemental feedback about the effects of their behaviors and decisions on others and on their environment helps students become more aware of their behaviors (Costa, 1984).

Educators can teach students to evaluate using multiple criteria. Have students reflect upon and categorize their actions according to two or more sets of evaluative criteria. For example, they can distinguish between what was helpful and what was hindering; or what they liked and didn't like (Costa, 1984). Other strategies to strengthen this metacognition include:

  1. Paraphrasing students' ideas. Some examples follow: "What you're telling me is..."; "What I hear in your plan are the following steps..."; or "Let's work with Peter's strategy for a moment." Inviting students to restate, translate and compare each other's ideas causes them to become not only better listeners of others' thinking but better listeners of their own thinking (Costa, 1984).

  2. Labeling students' behaviors. When teachers place positive labels on students' cognitive processes, students become conscious of their actions: "What I see you doing is making out a plan of action for..."; "What you are doing is called an experiment"; "You're being very helpful to Mark by sharing your paints. That's an example of cooperation" (Costa, 1984).

  3. Clarifying students' terminology. Students often use nonspecific terminology. For example, in making value judgments, students might say, "It's not fair"; "He's too strict"; or "It's no good." Teachers need to clarify these values: "What's too strict?"; "What would be more fair?"; "What's no good?" (Costa, 1984).

  4. Pointing out nominalizations. Students sometimes make statements such as "They're mean to me" ("Who are they?"); "We had to do that" ("Who is 'we'?"); "Everybody has one" ("Who is 'everybody'?") Asking such clarifying questions causes students to define their terminology and to examine the premise of their thinking (Costa, 1984).

  5. Modeling. Of all the instructional techniquest suggested, teacher modeling probably has the greatest influence on students. Since students learn best by imitating the adults around them, the teacher who publicly demonstrates metacognition will probably produce students who metacognitate. Some indicators of teachers' public metacognitive behavior might include sharing planning; describing goals and objectives and giving reasons for their actions; making human errors and then illustrating recovery from those errors by getting back on track; admitting not knowing an answer but designing ways to produce an answer; seeing feedback and evaluation of their actions from others; having a clearly stated value system and making decisions consistent with that system; being able to self disclose, using adjectives that describe their strengths and weaknesses; demonstrating understanding and empathy by listening to and accurately describing the ideas and feelings of others (Costa, 1984).

Using Bloom's Taxonomy of Thinking Levels, provided in Table IX, teachers can promote thinking ability through the use of cue words to induce thinking at the respective levels shown in the table. All of Bloom's categories should be utilized in flexible sequences rather than in a fixed order.

There is one final suggestion: outlaw "I can't." Create a classroom environment where students are forbidden to say "I Can't"; "I don't know how to..."; or "I'm too slow to..." Instead, teach students to identify what information is required, what materials are needed or what skills they need. When students can identify the gaps between what they know and what they need to know, they are more likely to develop both thinking skills and a persistent attitude toward successfully completing a task.

Helping Students Overcome Fear of Failure and Rejection of Success

 Many students fear both academic failure and success, while others reject academic success as a "White" aspiration. Students who fear failure often experienced failure before. These students are tortured by an educational process that focuses more on identifying their weaknesses then on identifying their strengths. Activities to help students identify and develop their unique strengths and talents follow.

Although some students might not excel academically, they will have non-academic strengths that can be extolled, nurtured and strengthened in the classroom (Marks, 1981). Look for the following and make efforts to link these non-academic strengths. Many students are motivated to overcome their areas of academic deficiencies once they realize there is appreciation for some of their non-academic "gifts".

Non-Academic Strengths or Qualities Possible Academic or Career Outlet
  • moral responsibility
    		•  social service, teaching
  • compassion
    		•  psychology, medicine, nursing
  • diplomacy
    		•  politics
  • humor and wit
    		•  law, writing
  • sensitivity
    		•  counseling, teacher aide
  • independence
    		•  business, science
  • courage
    		•  civic activism, advocacy organization
  • altruism
    		•  social work, nursing, community organizing, environmental work
  • manual dexterity
    		•  computers, carpentry, graphic arts, locksmith
  • talent for innovation and improvisation
    		•  law, media, engineering, architecture, politics
  • mechanical achievement
    		•  mechanics, plumbing, electrical work, drafting
  • expressive achievement
    		•  performing arts, writing, interior design
  • culinary achievement
    		•  chef, caterer, dietitian
  • physical prowess
    		•  fire fighter, emergency medical technician
  • social achievement
    		•  hotel management, sales

    Teachers can also help students overcome fear of failure and rejection of success by building better home/school relationships. Despite evidence that shows a positive home-school relationship helps students perform better (Henderson, 1975), many schools do very little to strengthen this delicate bond. As difficult or time-consuming as it may be, teachers must reach out to parents or guardians and get them involved in motivating their children.

    Teachers can improve not only their relationships with parents or guardians, but also the perception parents or guardians have of the school. Research shows that parent involvement increases student achievement (Henderson, 1987). Some initiatives teachers can take to enhance parental involvement follow:

    Promoting Positive Teacher-Parent Relationships

    1. Teachers with primary-middle school children can take 15 to 20 minutes during the evening and call 3-5 parents or guardians to discuss the students' progress. High school teachers can call the parents or guardians for those students who are having a difficult time and those showing improvement or special achievements.

    2. Many teachers at the junior and senior high school levels think it serves no useful purpose to forge positive home/school relations. However, even at this level, a solid, positive relation with the home can still improve the desire for a child to succeed.

    3. During the first telephone contact, teachers can discuss some of the good things they've already noticed about the student, such as:

      • special gifts and talents they have notices (seek to learn what parents or guardians love most about the student);
      • things they plan to do to enhance the student's abilities; and
      • their short- and long-range goals for the class and the student.

        Teachers should leave the parent (or guardian) with the impression that they are excited about teaching, that they believe in that parent's child and that they are willing and anxious to meet with the parents or guardians. This initiative often has immediate results as parents (or guardians) encourage their children to do well with you.

    4. During this first parent-teacher conference, teachers should take time to discuss with parents or guardians the unique strengths and interests of each student and any sensitivities or special qualities or responsibilities they might have:

      • "What have you noticed about Antar that you consider outstanding?"
      • "What kinds of things does Peter like to do most?"
      • "What are the special activities Ellen engages in at home?"
      • "Are there any talents Elijah has which I should help him to develop?"
      • "Are there things I should avoid saying or doing with Kashif?"

    5. For elementary students, during the remainder of the school year, send little notes home to celebrate accomplishments. Teachers can call the parents or guardians and share their delight with them -- especially in those instances where a child shows signs of reversing a declining trend.

    6. Learn more about community resources, community leaders and after-school activities for your students;

    7. Give children homework assignments that can involve other family members (e.g., reporting on the content of television programs or interviewing family members);

    8. Show the utmost respect and concern for each parent or guardian and always refer to the school community in a positive light; and

    9. Be visible at all parent-teacher functions.

    Students who fear success are often not challenged to believe in success principles. Remember, these students often have both a positive social self-image and a negative academic self-image. However, teachers can help these students to develop success motivation by:

    A structured approach to success is one way to help students learn to value achievement. Table X is a "Success Chart" which students can complete in the teacher's presence to identify each helpful characteristic. Examples of short- and long-range goals should be given and a sample success chart developed with the group. Students can identify a goal they want to achieve. Next, they should list their outstanding qualities and those things that help or impede their progress and specific strategies for achieving their goal. Teachers should note the students' strengths and let students know their intent is to help students to reach their goal by building on their strengths and talents and helping them to overcome those things that might be impeding their progress.

    Activities to Improve Goal-Setting Abilities

    1. Schedule a monthly "show-and-tell" in which students share with the class non-school-related goals they have set and accomplished.

    2. Have weekly reviews of famous Black Americans who have achieved their goals. Remind students that success is very much a part of the African-American culture and experience.

    3. Applaud all efforts students put forth to reach their goals.

    4. Set monthly academic achievement goals with and for each child and share them with parents or guardians.

    5. Assist students to develop sequential strategies for meeting goals.

    6. Help students to see failure as a learning experience by discussing failure as part of the road to success.

    Finally, students can be inspired by the role model they see in their teachers. Far too many teachers are discouraged because they believe their students lack adequate role models in their homes and communities. Rather than concerning themselves with influences outside of the school over which they have no control, teachers can make the most of the time they have with students. Remember, most students spend more time interacting with their "school family" (approximately six hours every day) than they spend interacting with their home "home family." A teacher's exemplary behavior and aspirations can influence students' success drive and their goal orientation.

    Strategies for Success

    Peer pressure can be turned into peer acceptance and support to promote school success. Teachers can offset negative peer pressure and encourage peer acceptance and support through the use of friendship networks (such can serve as learning stimulants), group activities and projects, heterogeneous groupings, peer coaching and mentoring and the "buddy system."

    When success is rewarded, it is reinforced. Rewards can motivate students. For example, Eastern High School in Washington, D.C., sponsors four Student of the Month awards. The winners, top students who have been recommended by teachers, get $15, a certificate, their pictures on a plaque in the school lobby, breakfast with a Kiwanis Club member and lunch on Capitol Hill with the principal and a school board representative. This program is designed to boost the image of students who are doing well and make success a cultural norm for the school.

    Educators must work very hard to dispel the belief that it doesn't pay to do well academically. Children can be motivated to succeed through inspirational examples. As often as possible, teachers should allow students to:

    Keep students inspired and let them know victory can and will be theirs. They have to believe in their own abilities and teachers can make the critical difference.

    Conclusion and Impact

    Although not an easy profession, education is certainly a wonderful one, affording the opportunity for daily rewards. The challenge for educators is to seek and obtain the gratification the profession is capable of providing. In seeking to make teaching the exceptionally exiting experience it should be, this publication has provided some insight and information to enhance both the self-image and the achievement of Black youth. Yet, the real challenge for all educators -- individually and collectively -- is to make a recommitment to provide all youth the joy of learning. The information presented here can only benefit students if educators accept the challenge and responsibility of bringing out the very best in every child whose life becomes theirs to touch.

    Teachers should take tremendous pride in knowing how important they are in building America's future. When teachers become more aware of the insidious manifestations of institutional racism -- in understanding that the school, teachers and the students themselves are victims -- they can be very effective in forging an alliance with students and parents to correct the effects of institutional racism. Consequently, teachers will be able to help Black students build positive academic self images and increase their academic achievement.

    Not only must teachers believe they can make a difference, but they must choose to make a difference. Educators can make a commitment to help minority students realize the joy of learning -- by helping them to be the best they can.

    The challenge confronts each of us in different ways. Yet, we owe it to ourselves, our children, our communities and society to provide all youth with the best we can offer. Surely, a powerful learning foundation will facilitate the progress and prosperity of which to be proud -- for the future of all of us.

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